Buddhist Psychology and Conditioning

The use of the classic conditioning of Pavlov and the Operant conditioning of Skinner are both well known within the circle of Psychology. The ability to modify behavior using such techniques though sometime ethically questionable has provided very interesting results. The connection to cognitive behaviorism is without question as the modification of perception of events or patterns aid in achieving the end result of behavioral modification. Many results also suggest that the social learning processes play a large part in the way an individual discovers what is acceptable and is then held to a standard by their peers or society as a whole. The use of several areas of psychologic therapy have attempted to achieve the goal of behavioral modification but at times were met with limited results. Carl Roger’s fascination with Eastern philosophy and the Buddhist philosophy in particular provided an alternative for patients.

Buddhist Psychology over the past few decades has begun to gain ground for psychologist and therapists alike searching for an alternative means of treatment.

The Buddhist approach mainly focuses on the identification and removal of behavioral process that cause suffering. The Eightfold Path of Buddhism is then added as a means for the patient to examine their own behaviors via concentration in the areas of right view, speech, intention, action, livelihood, effort, concentration, and mindfulness. The process draws attention to specific areas of the patient’s life including knowledge of cause and effect, morality , and the concentration required to make those decisions. The removal of religious aspects may be required for some patients as Buddhist practices may not be fully accepted depending upon region. The examination of Buddhist therapies through the lens of classic conditioning, operant conditioning, behaviorism, and social learning theory; may provide a means to bridge the gap between Eastern philosophy and Western psychological concepts.

When considering the concept of true suffering in the life of an individual the therapist must first uncover the origin of the suffering. The first questions to uncover this state should propel the individual toward self-examination and mindful review of behaviors leading to such suffering. Those in the grip of addictive behaviors may find it difficult to analyze their personal behaviors and may require the examination of both cognitive behavior and operant conditioning concepts. Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) performed a study examining the addictive behavior of smoking and the possible modifications for behavioral changes. The patient though making decisions on their own may have been influence throughout their lives lacking a proper understanding as to acceptable behaviors that may adversely affect their health.

Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) indicates the use of mindfulness training beginning with the decisions involving both positive and negative reinforcement. The therapist suggests the patient considers the process by which the addictive behaviors are performed. Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) examine specific details of the positive reinforcement beginning with socialization which are considered pleasant by the patient. The consideration of unpleasant issues such as missing work, trouble with bosses, loved ones, and financial expenses are also considered (Brewer, Elwafi, & Davis, 2013). The patient is then made aware of the pleasant nature and reinforcement of particular aspects of the behavior and the negative aspects then are set aside to prevent poor behaviors in the future.

Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) then suggests now that both positions of the behavior are identified operant conditioning cues can be used to change such behaviors. Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) consider the use of cognitive mindfulness theory as a means to begin changing the patient’s behavior. Though cognitive mindfulness theory finds its origins in corrective therapies for depression the concept has shown great value in changing addictive behaviors. Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) indicate the therapy lasts around eight weeks and begins first with the process of examining automatic behaviors. The automatic behaviors are then drawn into two specific directions. The first are is considering the aspects of the situation step by step when the habit is performed and the second is how the individual maintains the idea that the behavior is acceptable. Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) at this time examines the environment that produces the behavior time of day, individuals involved, social interactions, and social acceptability.

Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) elucidates that the patient by examining such aspects is now primed to examine the nature of the cravings that lead to the habit being performed. Emphasis is now drawn to judgement of the behavior along with the cause and effect nature of the addiction in a step by step method. The client is presented with techniques for change now that cravings activators are identified. The patient now uses alternatives to fulfill areas such as socializing and activity changes to avoid negative aspects of such behaviors and reinforces positive aspects with alternative means to avoid both cravings and addictive behaviors. The combination of mindfulness in the Buddhist perspective combined with operant condition proved very useful. The addictive behavior of smoking in Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis (2013) study is a simple form of addiction. Though the system has also presented very useful results for those with illicit drug use as well.

The authors use of mindfulness training from a Buddhist perspective yielded very good results for the specific individuals in the test (Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis, 2013). Though the results were positive there was no mention as to the height of the individual’s addiction which may have provided more validity to the research (Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis, 2013). The operant conditioning seemed very positive especially in the case of making the patient completely mindful of their actions in a step by step manner (Brewer, Elwafi, and Davis, 2013). The modification process was also productive but did lack specifics as to how the individual should change their behaviors. The psychological issues regarding social interactions was also not considered in the study. The patient may have been stricken with social anxiety and smoking with groups may have lessened the anxiety. The research was well performed even though there were minor areas outside the line of focus that were not considered.

The aspect of suffering and the origin of suffering is an essential concept in both classic and operant conditioning (Powell, Bradley, and Gray,1992; DeMoss, 2011). The ability to first identify the origin of suffering and for the patient to first indicate having a problem which needs to be resolved is very important to nominal recovery. DeMoss (2011) indicates that via “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism many aspects of craving and addiction can be easily identified as suffering by the patient. Cognitive behavioral aspects are easily identified in a step by step manner as the therapist walks the patient though each noble truth. DeMoss (2011) suggests presenting the patient with specific aspects of the craving associated with addiction, why the craving or addiction exists, indicating the craving can cease, and that a path of behavioral change can lead to the end of the addiction/cravings (DeMoss, 2011).

Within the study the first consideration is that the patient’s beliefs are due to ignorance and not necessarily bound by a complete understanding of their actions (DeMoss, 2011). The patient first examines thoughts that lead to their cravings. Once the thoughts are identified the therapist next step is to examine the behaviors thus eliminating the ignorance (DeMoss, 2011). The therapist then helps the patient identify specific aspects of the behavior that lead to the origin of why the patient performs the actions leading to addiction (DeMoss, 2011). The patient now having the knowledge of their suffering and having identified both thoughts and means of their behavior understands that the suffering can end. DeMoss (2011) indicates the end of suffering may be the most difficult of applying The Four Noble Truths as a method to ending suffering. The issues for the patient is in finding alternative means to end cravings that lead to addiction. DeMoss (2011) presents the idea that feedback loops crossing several areas of the brain and adapting behavioral changes effecting several areas of the brain may have the best overall results. The time, environment, thoughts, actions and awareness are all areas requiring modification to achieve acceptable changes ending the addiction and preventing relapse. The final aspect is providing a path to change once all the areas of change are identified.

DeMoss (2011) examine The Eightfold path for behavioral change including the “right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right exertion, right self-possession and right concentration” (p. 317). The eight items fall into three distinct areas including the moral aspects that change behaviors, the wisdom to apply those moral changes and meditation or concentration to achieve the necessary contemplation. The application of empty self is the core to change. The term seems paradoxes but is actually quite simple and a focus of the impermanence of the human condition. The therapist suggests the patient considers the consciousness as empty and impermanent therefore able to be changed as the self regulates behaviors. The patient is also made aware that changing and at times requires maintenance may be required to produce positive outcomes. The patient then selects moral and ethical behaviors to slowly implement the needed changes that lead away from a life of addiction. The weight of the therapy at this time fall to the therapist which may have to guide the individual toward acceptable moral and ethical standards.

The article is very well presented and seems to only lack direction in two specific areas. The first area is the identification of the suffering may require more guidance then simple identification of cravings. There may be underlying issues that led to the addiction and may require clarity before preceding toward the addiction. Otherwise the therapist may not have access to the true core of the patient’s issues. Though not mentioned the ethical concerns when adjusting someone’s moral direction must be done with the utmost care and be reinforced with a form of classical conditioning based on a self-reward system providing positive reinforcement for good moral and ethical behavior. The therapist must be of the highest moral character and not use their power at this point to manipulate the patient in any way toward their own views. Consulting Skinner’s work in behaviorism can allow the therapist a balanced means by which to examine the patient and begin traditional means prior to introducing the Buddhist philosophy.

The connections between Buddhist thought and the theories of Skinner’s radical behaviorism from outside examination seem weak at best, although this interpretation is misleading . Diller, and Lattal (2008) indicate that those who choose to only examine the connection from the surface miss a deeper connection that in truth may generate a balance between behavior, philosophy, religion, and aspects of science. The first area of connection is Buddhism’s use of environment prior to inserting a modification process (Diller and Lattal, 2008). The application though based on a somewhat religious based processes draws direct similarities to Skinner’s use of behavioral analysis examining the environment of the patient. Diller, and Lattal (2008) insist that the concept of analysis connected to radical behaviorism and Buddhism single out the individual processes of examination and fall within the realm of a hybrid scientific perspectives assisted by mindfulness. Diller, and Lattal (2008) examine the process which is then used to present a step by step reason for which behaviors are performed and fall into the category of addiction and craving. Diller, and Lattal (2008) suggest at this point Buddhism modifies the core concepts by both examining the process and also providing a system of correction that is built into the philosophy as a correction method. Buddhism becomes the catalyst by which the analysis of radical behaviorism applies corrective means entangled with philosophical support from and Eastern perspective.

Diller and Lattal (2008) are quick to point out that Buddhism walking the fine line between philosophy and religion can be modified for use under special cultural circumstances. The philosophy having the means to cross cultural, political, and religious views being suggested as a supplement to already imbedded philosophies and socially acceptable practices within a society. Diller and Lattal (2008) explains from a philosophical standpoint both Buddhism and behaviorism reject the idea of dualism. The theories and concepts also find a common ground among the use of logical perspectives and interpretations which are left to the patient but influenced and supported by logical though. The connection allows scientific aspects to be applied and a logical framework is in support of cognitive, social learning, and behavioral aspects. Diller and Lattal (2008) suggest using Buddhism in support of behaviorism whenever possible. The supporting nature of Buddhism is used as a means of providing validity and mindful analysis that the patient may even consider as a scientific approach to disrupting their destructive behaviors. The patients approach, analyzes and connects aspects of cause and effect then applies the needed changes.

The articles approach was fascinating and relied deeply on the connection between Buddhism, behaviorism, philosophy, and became anchored deeply from a scientific basis. The use of multiple aspects of Buddhist analysis of one’s actions works well as a supporting mechanism though parts of the procedure were not entirely clear. There were many examples provided in the article as to how the process could be used effectively but not toward specific ways to adjust both behavior analysis to Buddhist logic and vice versa. The articles most interesting concept is placing the logical analysis in the hands of the patient with guidance. Though this increases interaction between the patient and the therapist, there must be great care taken as to identify moral and ethical understanding of the patient. Care must also be taking not to place emphasis on the religious aspects of Buddhism but instead the procedure of analysis as applied to behavioral analysis. The reason behind such a suggestion is to prevent confusion by the patient as combining multiple processes while analyzing one’s own behavior may be difficult. The use of specific therapies based within the Buddhist practice may be very useful as an alternative means of analysis.

Several Buddhist sects use the concepts that resemble common cognitive behavioral therapies used in the West. Manninen (2000) indicates that research into students with behavioral issues provided a significant proving ground for the use of modifying those with difficult and complex cognitive issues. Manninen (2000) examine the areas of emotional therapy, defiant disorder, and cognitive restructuring. Though multiple areas were presented the choice was made to focus in on these specific area as the mirror emotional disturbances similar to those with additive disorders. The basis of The four noble though making the foundation of Buddhist theory are often presented without a specific description of the realms of suffering. Manninen (2000) explains that the term suffering indicates the human inability to control one’s instincts and impulses. The impulses can often overwhelm us emotionally and require cognitive abilities to prevent chaotic responses to simple stimuli. The hell realms (not to be confused with the Christian description of hell) focus on specific emotions to which we lack control (Manninen, 2000).

The six realms of lower existence as to say those which will overtake our psyche and represent uncontrolled behaviors are the Hell Realm where one is control by anger and fear (Manninen, 2000). The second realm are Hungry Ghost’s Realm for which basic needs such as hunger and contentment are not met (Manninen, 2000). The third level is the Animal Realm for which one is overtaken by the urge of flight over direct confrontation of an issue (Manninen, 2000). These lower realms directly transfer to the psychological issues which are identifiable by mainstream psychologists (Manninen, 2000). The Hell Realm for example becomes defiant behavioral disorder (Manninen, 2000). The hungry ghost to the forms off obsessive compulsive behaviors and attention deficit disorders. The Animal Realms tend to forms of autism, withdraw, depression, and isolation (Manninen, 2000). The three higher realms such as the Human Realm which is afflicted with the need for acceptance and self interest. The Jealousy Realm that which is consumed by the need to acquire material items, excessive consumption and greed (Manninen, 2000). The final realm which is the Heaven Realm is a lust for power and finding joy in control over others (Manninen, 2000). Theses higher realms all suffer from attachments to their acquisition of relationships, material possessions, and often include the obsessiveness of the lower realms (Manninen, 2000).

These human realm anchors the jealousy and Heaven realms as the gateway to such sufferings (Manninen, 2000). The importance of each realm is the ability to portray true reality when in fact the reality the individual considers true is ruled by emotion and lacks stability. Manninen (2000) suggest a life ruled by raw emotional is out of balance and requires measures of control to lose direct attachment and gain logical control over one’s emotions. The key is to control one’s instincts thus rendering the hell realms with no control over the individual. Manninen (2000) describes the need for identification of which area exhibits the most control over the individual. Beginning with the areas that are most difficult and work toward those with the least direct control. Manninen (2000) suggest by attacking the most difficult items the patient increases self-efficacy and may remain more balanced in future emotional issues.

The use of cognitive reconstruction therapies such as teaching the patient the faults of their interpretation of the world around them and how to interpret issues in a more positive manner yield the best results. Manninen (2000) indicate the therapist must take into consideration the instinctual predispositions of the individual when describing specific approaches to problems. Manninen (2000) indicate albert Ellis theories of rational and emotional theory put the recovery in the hands of the patient. The process allows the patient to examine their emotions and then the therapist suggest the integration of new emotions to deal with specific perspectives and emotionally difficult interpretations (Manninen, 2000). Ellis’s perspective allows the patient to confront emotions directly while also examine each emotion one by one as related to a specific problems or memory attachments that arise (Manninen, 2000). Via Manninen (2000) there is a suggestion that a slow approach to each emotion experienced plus methodically analyzing these emotions with be more fruitful and aid in correcting suffering more quickly.

The article is very well presented especially the additions of the underlying description of the meanings by which Buddhist psychology connects to suffering. The use of the hell realms is important as a way to breakdown specific behaviors into categories so they may be more easily managed . The patient then has multiple approaches for which to attack any given problem and has the ability to assess the behaviors as needed without a flood of information. The most difficult part of the research is the foundations of the classification and the possible melding together of specific areas of attachment and emotional disturbance. The therapist must take care to well define the realms for the patient and take into account the nature of the patient’s disturbances then apply them to the therapy appropriately. Once the objectives of the therapy are complete the therapist can provide maintenance in the form of the eightfold path and cognitive analysis of emotions to prevent relapses or reoccurrences of suffering.

The combination of Buddhism and the ancient philosophies of the East and the modern approaches of the West can be difficult. The therapist is required to examine several aspects including cognitive, behavioral, social learning plus operant and classical condition methods. The key to the use of Buddhist Psychology is the effective presentation of the method that considers the origin of suffering. Once the areas of suffering are identified conditioning and application of principles such as the Eightfold path can be applied to acquire the necessary changes (Manninen, 2000). While examining each behavior from this perspective the therapist must also consider the social influences of the patient. Summoning all the information the therapist can now use a combination of cognitive and Buddhist behavioral therapies to aid the patient in controlling emotional responses. The perspective of the patient may be difficult to modify and may be a very tedious process. The therapist must be patient as much of the Buddhist approach is in teaching the patient to modify perception and understanding the nature of importance and that all things change. The key is teaching the patient adaptability and the ability to change their perception as the situation dictates and not force their perception to become disturbed when their expectation are not met. The final result, for the patient must be one of emotional balance, a sense of contentment, and mindfulness of each moment without unhealthy attachments to the human condition that leads to poor behaviors (Kornfield, 1993).

References

Brewer, J. A., Elwafi, H. M., & Davis, J. H. (2013). Craving to quit: psychological models

and neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness training as treatment for addictions. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Journal of The Society of Psychologists In Addictive Behaviors, 27(2), 366–379. https://doi-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/10.1037/a0028490

DeMoss, D. (2011). Empty and extended craving: an application of the extended mind thesis to

the four noble truths. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(2), 309–325. https://doi-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/10.1080/14639947.2011.610638

Diller, J. W., & Lattal, K. A. (2008). Radical Behaviorism and Buddhism: complementarities and

conflicts. The Behavior analyst, 31(2), 163–177. doi:10.1007/bf03392169

Kornfield, J. (1993). The Buddhist path and social responsibility. Revision, 16(2), 83. Retrieved

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Manninen, C. O. (2000). Relaxation, Cognitive Therapies, Tibetan Buddhist

Perspectives Thereon and Implications for the Instruction of Students with Challenging Behaviors. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com.proxylibrary.ashford.edu/login.aspx? direct=true&AuthType=ip,cpid&custid=s8856897&db

=eric&AN=ED443239&site=ehost-live