Article Review: The Relationship Between Stress, Fatigue, And Cognitive Functioning

The area of cognitive psychology focuses on the processes by which an individual both learns and retains information into memory. Those observing subjects in the area of cognitive psychology commit themselves to a deep understanding of the brains ability to perceive information and assess responses and formulate solutions in the face of great tribulation. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) examine the difficulties of college students maintaining efficient cognitive function under stress and extreme fatigue. Body chemistry is often adversely affected when an individual experiences situations of sleep deprivation, hunger, and extreme mental fatigue. The failure to control exogenous influences may have long-term effects on an individual’s memory and executive functions (Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley, 2014).

There are several contributing factors to the increased stress and fatigue of college-age students. During primary school, for example, many children have a highly structured lifestyle to include adequate rest, controlled nutrition, and organizational aspects controlled by parental figures. Allowing the removal of such control structures may leave those with mild learning disabilities unable to cope when left to their own devices (Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley, 2014). The body under stress often presents physiological changes to include language difficulties and processing speeds which would leave a student at an extreme disadvantage while learning at the college level. The prefrontal cortex may also suffer under stress as connections become more sporadic and less uniform functions (Forcelli, DesJardin, West, Holmes, Elorette, Wellman, and Malkova, 2016). Therefore, excessive stress levels and fatigue, in turn, result in indulgent behaviors toward information and activities that at other times the individual would find immaterial.

Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) studies consisted of sixty college-age students ranging from 17.1 to 22.5 years of age, the median age of 19.28 and meant age of 19.45. From the sample sixty-five percent of the individuals were female, and thirty-five percent were male. The study was carried out in an academic setting, all subjects were student volunteers from an undergraduate psychology program, and local IRB approval was received before research commenced. Researchers met the ethical concerns of the study via an officially submitted research proposal approval by local IRB, all participants were also presented with a formal letter of consent as indicated in the APA ethical guidelines, and test durations were also limited and short on duration. Students reported increases in depressions and heightened states on anxiety and panic during early stages of the research. The results supported the general hypotheses of the study and resulted in the generation of data supporting the results. The final results of the study indicated as stress and fatigue increased tests detected rises in cortisol along with increased cognitive impairment.

Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) hypothesis suggests that increased stress and fatigue affecting cognitive function may leave an individual unable to stay focused especially at the collegiate level. Long-term effects of diminished cognitive ability may end in psychological issues and could also result in the inability to maintain academic requirements.

Examining the history of human behavior may provide a foundation for a better understanding of how humans react under stressful conditions. There is a point in history where our life may have depended on a minute by minute upon our ability to handle stress and assess difficulties. There is a necessity in combing the theories of psychology with the perspectives of anthropology allows us to grasp the human condition fully. Psychology provides us with the understanding of behaviors that lead to the choices and development of social constructs within the realm of anthropology. These ideas are never more prevalent than the examination of human evolution and the basis for human consciousness along with problem-solving capability. The evolutionary aspects of the human mind suggest these mechanisms and the inability to deal with extreme stress by adolescent individuals has been in our DNA for eons.

Forcelli, DesJardin, West, Holmes, Elorette, Wellman, and Malkova (2016) indicate that individuals under significant stress suffer from lacking pre-frontal cognitive function and lack amygdala control. The lack of control was observed in primates and resulted at times in variations of heightened aggressive behaviors. The results also showed that under cases of extreme stress reflected instances of depression and heightened states of response with defense mechanisms. The subsequent indication is that lack of control within amygdala functions cascades into several areas of the brain that are adversely affected by a lack of emotional control (Forcelli, DesJardin, West, Holmes, Elorette, Wellman, and Malkova, 2016). Though Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) research on the biological causes to stress there are no mentions of stress and early humans.

Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) lack information of fundamental origins of stress and survival in early humans which would provide a better picture of how humans acquired the ability to handle stress in an everchanging environment. Harré (2006) describes Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett’s theories of memory and the testing of specific areas of recall as very useful in consideration of stress and learning capability. Bartlett’s methods of “description and repeated reproduction” laid the foundation of how memory is understood (Harré, 2006: Ch3). As stated earlier the learning capacity and the effects of stress cause philological changes in brain chemistry changing the way an individual both perceives and grasps information (Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley, 2014). The instances of extreme stress and the decline of memory ability conjointly affect the subject’s ability to perform. However, the research does not seem to consider the variations of an individual’s ability to handle stress under long-term conditions information (Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley, 2014). Furthering the research in the area of determining adequate levels of stress and pre-exposure to heightened levels of stress may also re-enforce data suggesting stress adaptation. The Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) may have benefited from including Bartlett’s perspective in understanding memory. The lack of explaining the foundations of information within the study leave the reader often in an independent search to acquire knowledge to aid in understanding the research.

Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White (2011) indicate specific attributes in four areas of creativity and learning when assessing local environments. The areas considered in the study are basic novelty recognition, novelty recognition, observational learning, and innovation. The area of basic novelty recognition is in one’s ability to recognize the change in one’s local environment (Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White, 2011). A subject having extreme stress, anxiety, or agitation may be unable to assess their local surroundings correctly. Missteps in early assessment may lead to misidentification of possible difficulty and or safety concerns (Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White, 2011). Lack of simple Identification of an approaching difficulty may leave the young student unable to gain traction or in worse cases put themselves in an environment that may cause physical harm.

The usefulness of this capability is the initial assessment of needs and if a difficulty exists that the individual must overcome. Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White (2011) explain that the creative process can be inhibited under extremely stressful conditions and result in misidentification and the long-term impact of possible difficulties. The next step is novelty seeking which is the subject’s ability to address fears and possible risks and rewards under certain conditions (Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White, 2011).

A college student under stress and issues of sleep deprivation may be unable to identify long-term ramification of a decision. The next level is the position of observational learning. The author’s present “Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory” as the basis for a subject’s ability to discover creative solutions when problem-solving (Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White, 2011). Bandura’s theory indicates that an individual observing more creative peers may gain advanced problem-solving capabilities. Bandura’s perspective suggests the larger the group and stress levels will undoubtedly lead to incorrect decisions making (Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White, 2011). One could argue that the party atmosphere in many universities is, in fact, a combination of stress and social responses from multiple individuals responding similarly. The final stage is innovation and the neurobiology that supports creative innovation. Innovation in itself is the end of the creative process by which either physical or mental tools are developed to solve a problem. Maturity at the college level may indeed arise from the combination of learning to regulate stress and developing mental tools to both solve problems and understand long-term ramifications of poor choices. Further investigation into biological factors may have a better understanding of how exogenous stressors begin impacting both the bodies SNS and immune responses. Though Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) lack information in the area of how the mind of an individual initially addresses onsets of stress. Kaufman, Butt, Kaufman, and Colbert-White (2011) explains how the mind addresses difficulties and at what point those problems become overwhelming.

Lanzenberger, Wadsak, Spindelegger, Mitterhauser, Akimova, Mien, Kasper (2010) suggest the neurobiological aspects involved when analyzing the effects of stress on the human brain are very important. Stress reactions in the brain have several different hormones that regulate behavior such as serotonin (Lanzenberger, Wadsak, Spindelegger, Mitterhauser, Akimova, Mien, Kasper, 2010). Focusing specifically on the combination of serotonin and the 5-HT1a receptor displays physiologically how the brain responds under stress (Lanzenberger, Wadsak, Spindelegger, Mitterhauser, Akimova, Mien, Kasper, 2010). The 5-HT1a receptors demonstrate control of the hippocampus and correlating response in the amygdala. Unregulated hormones in the serotonergic systems have been shown to increase and result in different levels of anxiety and depression. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) study should address the counterbalance of proper serotonin levels. When neurochemicals are in balance possible psychological extremes in behavior may be avoided. (Lanzenberger, Wadsak, Spindelegger, Mitterhauser, Akimova, Mien, Kasper, 2010). College students under extreme stress with undiagnosed chemical imbalances may exhibit increased anxiety and stress. Individuals noticing the inability to cope with stress or experience increase states of anxiety may require medical intervention. Recognizing early symptoms and seeking help may prevent long-term psychological problems. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) present a one-sided understanding of brain physiological responses to stress. Without addressing the serotonin and cortisol balance issues for proper neurological health, the study lacks an all-encompassing perspective as to how the brain handles stress. The birth of many imbalances can often originate in the nutritional aspects and daily caloric intake of the college-age individual.

Secondary, non-biological responses may also affect the college student’s response to stress or perceived stressors. Perception of difficulty can often be a factor in those with less life experience. The perception of difficulty be it academic or economic can often be overinflated especially by young college students. Zahra and Riaz (2017) declare perception of difficulty be it academic or economic can often be overinflated especially by young college students. Younger adult students may lack the life experience to understand that many simple difficulties if addressed may pass quickly. Lack of time management skills often may result in the perception of a specific task as being overwhelming, and often students chose avoidance which further perpetuates the problem. Zahra and Riaz (2017) suggest physical activity as a means to cope with stress and maintain clear the mind. According to Zahra and Riaz (2017), college students are less likely to exercise at the same rate as working adults. Those with less education and increased economic stressors also suffered more often from perceived stress. Extreme stress combined with poor nutrition can lead to immune and gastrointestinal issues which produce physiological responses prolonging or even perpetuating psychological issues. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) addresses very little in the way of perception of perceived stressors. Younger individuals may be more likely to misunderstand the severity or finality of a situation. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) would have benefited from the inclusion of information suggesting as an individual increases experience levels, and self-efficacy arises that stress levels tend to decline.

Liu (2017) explains that anxiety and stress have been found to dramatically impact the body’s natural ability to handle simple instances of physical or mental difficulty. The Microbiome Project conducted by the NIH examines the impact of diet and the connection to cognitive abilities (Liu, 2017). The impact of microbiota on the brain’s ability to function was investigated well in animals, but researchers have only conducted a few human based projects. Liu, (2017) suggests that those under severe anxiety and stress may benefit significantly from a change in diet. The study indicates that the enteric microbiome may suffer from dysbiosis (yeast overproduction). Researchers in the study linked overproduction of yeast to increased immune responses leading to distress. The distress then manifest itself with an increase in psychological difficulty including anger issues, cognitive difficulties, and lack of emotional control. The situation where a college student is no longer subject to parental control may lead to poor diet choices (Liu, 2017). The diet choices may then exacerbate learning disabilities and cognitive function.

The inclusion of probiotics may prevent enteric dysbiosis and increase cognitive functions and increased emotional control. Though the original article is useful, there is a lack of addressing the underlying causes that lead to increased stress and anxiety. Nutritional issues may have a direct effect not only on an immune response but also induce physiological changes that may perpetuate psychological issues. Deeply seeded psychological issues can, in fact, lead to harmful behaviors if left untreated one may resort to self-harm and even suicidal behavior. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) do not address the combination of nutrition and immune responses and one’s ability to cope with stress. Lack of proper nutrition is a key point in providing the human body with the proper condition from which to cope with stressors.

Raza, Ul Hasan Abbasi, Khurshid, and Ansari (2018) stipulates the connection between stress and anxiety are paramount when examining instances of self-harm in young adults. Raza, Ul Hasan Abbasi, Khurshid, and Ansari (2018) investigates the possible causes of self-harm in college students along with possible demographic influences. Education level and family income played a significant role in those engaged in self-harm (Raza, Ul Hasan Abbasi, Khurshid, and Ansari, 2018). Using the “Pearson Product-moment Correlation,” the most evident common denominator seemed to be a combination of stress, anxiety, and family income. Although self- harm is not equal to the finality of suicide identifying issues of self-harm may prevent suicidal behavior (Raza, Ul Hasan Abbasi, Khurshid, and Ansari, 2018). The correlation between stress and self-harm is important in identifying a pattern of behavior in those unable to cope with stress. Those who are suffering in the realm of self-harm may first need help to identify issues and seek professional help. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) do include small references to depression, however, self-harm and suicide and not mentioned in the study. The lack of such information does not provide the reader with the depth of possible outcomes associated with prolonged stress and anxiety. The reader may also gain knowledge of specific warning signs which are indicators of deep psychological issues.

Sajid, Hamid, Sabih, and Sajid (2017) postulates worldwide college students are all exposed to varying degrees of stress and anxiety. Younger students eighteen to nineteen years of age are less likely to report issues and as such counseling is less utilized (Sajid, Hamid, Sabih, and Sajid, 2017). The study finds that many of the stressors fall into specific categories of academic, time or health-related, self-imposed, and economic (Sajid, Hamid, Sabih, and Sajid, 2017). The research finds that individual stressors can be accepted and require a simple adjustment. However, a compounding of several simple stressors may result in, the sense of overwhelming odds and impending doom. The importance of identity and using coping mechanisms may prevent the onset of incapacitating psychological issues. The outcomes of the coping mechanism are often the common behaviors attributed to the stereotypical college lifestyle. The drinking of alcohol in excess, smoking, drug use, and promiscuity are destructive coping mechanisms often utilized by college students (Sajid, Hamid, Sabih, and Sajid, 2017). Many such poor coping mechanism only magnifies psychological distress and increase anxiety and stress.

Exercise, reading, relaxation techniques are ways to alleviate stressors in daily activates (Sajid, Hamid, Sabih, and Sajid, 2017). Self-identification of possible issues is the first step followed by applying tools to enable the student in preventing feelings of being overwhelmed. Seeking professional help can minimize the effects of stress and prevent one from succumbing to dangerous behaviors. Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) does not address the use of exercise and critical analysis of problems as a way of deterring possible stress increases. The importance of finding professional help when needed along with safe stress relief is lacking. Readers could benefit immensely from suggesting of proper coping behaviors and stress relief.

The study by Palmer, Economou, Cruz, Abraham-Cook, Huntington, Maris, and Maley (2014) does an excellent job drawing attention to the difficulties of stress and anxiety in college-aged young adults. The main issue with the article comes in the nature of not presenting a full scope of possible causes effecting psychological health. Several areas require research to make a complete assessment of an individual’s psychological state regarding stressors and anxiety. There is a need to seek out underlying causes as means of gaining a full understanding without making assumptions. College stress can be a difficult and sometimes debilitating issue for many young students. Several factors may contribute to an increase in stress and anxiety. Younger students at times fall prey to a lack of life experience, which in turn presents a situation of overwhelming odds. The misperception may lead to increased overall difficulties both personal and academic. Exogenous stressors may increase cortisol activity and negatively affect cognitive function. There are those who do not seek help and generally, lack effective coping skills. The students may then consider behavior that only perpetuates difficulties such and drugs, alcohol, and promiscuity. The student who partakes in such poor decisions may now also become sleep deprived only exacerbating the situation. College students must consider the fundamental of nutrition as a means to prevent immune system declines when under a long period of stress. Immune system difficulties resulting in illness may increase depression and anxiety.

The psychological issues that arise may begin as simple stress and anxiety but may spiral into more dangerous behavior such as self-harm. There is great importance in identifying the visual signs of self-harm such as cutting. Family members, professors, and friend should guide suffering individuals toward professional help as to minimize the possibility of a progression toward suicidal tendencies. Those testing the college waters for the first time may have a sense of dread and a fear of the unknown. Older students may be able to diminish some of these fears and help individuals understand that perception is the key to concurring any hardship. The road to self-efficacy is sometimes a trial by the fire under extremely stressful conditions. Staying focused and seeking professional help when needed may prevent psychological issues and help you achieve your dreams no matter the scale of difficulty.

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