Adolescent Mentoring and Cognitive Development

The use of mentors from the beginning to the end of adolescence for young males presents a guide while the individual experiences, physical, emotional, cognitive, and social aspects of becoming an adult. Rhodes, Spencer, Keller, Liang, & Noam (2006) indicate that mentors during the time of adolescence can indeed provide a roadmap to success. Positive role model presents a counter-balance to the lack of experience and sometimes overwhelming nature of becoming a young adult (Karcher, Kuperminc, Portwood, Sipe, and Taylor, 2006). Young adults often lack the insight of maintaining a positive perspective and the experience to understand that determination can overcome most difficult situations. The examination of changes in adolescent males between 13-18 years of age provides cognizance of the need for a favorable support structure during the challenging time of adolescent psychological development. Interacting with adolescent individuals, one must first analyze the ethical concerns of providing counsel to the individual in question. The American Psychological Association. (2010) presents those providing counsel a means by which to perform their duties without failure to provide adequate care. There are times when individuals may misunderstand the limits of therapy and the confidential limitations to treatment. The position of the therapist requires in-depth explanations of all care provided. The letter of informed consent may provide a list of actions and guidelines by which the therapist conducts treatment. There are several aspects associated with the APA parameters, for the case of this work we will focus on three specific elements. The elements of do no harm (3.04), discussing limits of confidentiality (4.02), and therapy involving couples and families (10.02) (American Psychological Association, 2010).

The first and most simple act is to “do no harm” during any point of counseling the adolescent individual and their family. Adolescents at times can be very temperamental and often may not be open to discussing problems in their lives. The adolescent should be aware that badgering and manipulation are not part of the therapy. Placing the individual at ease and assuring the subject that the therapist is there to help and not hinder may be the best information that one can provide. (American Psychological Association, 2010). The second ethical concern is the importance of explaining the limits of confidentiality to the patient. The onset of the initial consultation is the most appropriate time to discuss privacy (American Psychological Association, 2010). The adolescent must be aware as to the limits of confidentiality and that the guardian or parent also understands the limits of confidently. During the initial consultation time, the therapist presents an agreement between the parent/guardian and the subject to indicating instances physical harm (either self-inflicted or external) may require reporting to parent and local authorities (American Psychological Association, 2010). The adolescent must also understand the limits of information withheld from the parent or guardian. Lastly, covering the therapy of couples and families and the sense of who is the client and who is the patient during the treatment (American Psychological Association, 2010). The importance is to establish the understanding of the relationship and confidentiality between the subject and client as to have no misunderstandings. When in the case of providing therapy for adolescents during divorce proceedings all parties must be aware that the therapist may legally become a witness (American Psychological Association, 2010).

The initial examination when analyzing the behavior of those entering adolescence is the physical aspects of entering puberty. Lerner, Easterbrooks, Mistry, and Weiner (2013) explains when entering puberty children begin experiencing the effects of chemical and biological changes within the body preparing them for adulthood. The individual may experience difficulties in cognition and emotional control during this trying time. Hessel, Loeb, Szwedo, and Allen, (2016) suggest that an adolescents ability to regulate emotional states hinges on their ability to control both impulsive and negative emotional states. Adolescent males who have issues controlling anger, for example, should seek professional counseling regarding emotional maturity and be presented with coping skills to adjust behavior. Hessel, Loeb, Szwedo, and Allen, (2016) explains that achieving emotional maturity can be both a matter of self-control and maintaining a positive perspective regarding situations of conflict. The emotional control aspects also fall into the category of impulsive behavior combined with the social issue of peer pressure. The individual may address social situations as a means of developing adaptive social responses to prevent falling prey to peer pressure. Rest assured confidence plays a role in the emotional state of the individual and those with less confidence tend to more often submit to peer pressure.

The increase in chemicals within the body over time begin resulting in morphological changes. During the period of adolescence, the careful monitoring of the individual is necessary to prevent the individual from developing psychological issues. The need for observing the individual’s cognitive ability may provide a precursor to psychological problems and permit the child to gain the upper hand before the issues become uncontrollable. The examination of neural chemistry may present an understanding as to the effects on cognitive function for those in the midst of puberty. The cognitive aspects often associated with adolescents are romantic, social, and educational. Kuhn (2006) explains that due to chemical changes in the body during puberty individuals make social adjustments that put them in contact with the opposite sex. The romantic liaison is a precursor used later in adulthood to select a prospective mate. Kuhn (2006) also indicates that adolescents now having established a foundation educationally can act on their curiosities and more deeply examine the world around them. Many of these curiosities become lifetime and often lead to both colligate studies and employment upon reaching adulthood. Socially speaking, the specialized interests also allow adolescents to achieve friendships with likeminded individuals and begin to establish adult personalities encompassing interests, education, and social aspects of their lives.

Lerner, Easterbrooks, Mistry, and Weiner (2013) indicate the chemical GnRH combined with chemicals for sexual maturation significantly effect neural biochemistry. Though the GnRH mechanism is available during gestation, become fully activated during puberty. There is little known as to the actual timing activation involved in the onset of puberty. Fink, Pfaff, and Levine (2011) explain that the origins of timing for GnRH release lie in the release of dopamine and nerve receptors. The GnRH pulse generator is the primary controller during the onset of puberty. Once the individual enters puberty GnRH stimulates the hypothalamus instigating the release of LH (luteinizing hormone), and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) (Fink, Pfaff, and Levine, 2011). The effects of the limbic and neocortical systems have exaggerated impacts on the emotional and behavioral control mechanism of the brain. During the period of puberty, males may have very little impulse control resulting in promiscuous, STD’s, abusive relationships, drinking, and lack of foresight regarding long-term decisions (Fink, Pfaff, and Levine, 2011). The lack of control suggests the need for a positive role model and mentors when none are available (Rhodes, Spencer, Keller, Liang, and Noam, 2006). The positive role model at this time provides both emotional and psychological support to prevent extended bouts of depression and loneliness. Although not necessarily an indicator of the psychological state of the individual outward physical changes also appear during puberty. Males display an increase in body hair, along with significant height muscle mass increases, and weight gains.

Three psychological perspectives analyze both the structure of cognitive learning and social aspects associated with adolescent development. The theories of Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner, and Bandura examine the cognitive and social issues of adolescent development. Doolittle (1995) explains that the “Theory of Proximal Development” hinges on the progress by which the individual gains knowledge. During the first stages, an introduction of a task the individual is limited by what actions they can perform on their own. Later, via teaching and demonstration the students gain experience and apply knowledge, the performance of the given task is an indicator of the knowledge gained by the individual. Doolittle (1995) explains the area of potential is known as “The Zone of Proximal Development” (p.3).

Vygotsky explains the social environment in which one learns has significant influence over the ability for one to gain knowledge. The principal focus of the zone of proximal development is to consider the potential of the individual and process of maturing through experience. During the period of adolescence, the combination of social situation and increased personal experience lead to a barrage of information at a considerably accelerated rate. DuBois and Silverthorne, (2005) explain during the teen years of development it is imperative that children heading toward adulthood learn to make correct decisions which will allow the individual to maximize their potential. The need for positive mentors and tutors in the immature stages of life is essential to enable the child to navigate possible missteps. Houchins (2001) describes the lack of positive role models and increased social pressure as exogenous influences that may lead to poor cognitive development and possible criminal activity.

Considering the aspects of social development, one must also think of the “Ecological Theory of Development” suggested by Bronfenbrenner. Neal and Neal (2013) indicate that Bronfenbrenner examined the social connections in one’s life and the influence which those connections had on the individual. Neal and Neal (2013) identify Bronfenbrenner’ model as the microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, and macrosystem. The connections in each system range from those in the direct family, extended family, acquaintances, and the systems of control which manipulate one’s actions (social expectations, school officials, and local governing officials) (Neal and Neal, 2013). Before the advent of the computer age, much of the influence in adolescence was from those who and the individual would have direct personal communication. However, with the birth of social media direct connection gave way to secondary communication done in the online world. Deaton (2015) suggests that extended use of social media may cause psychological harm affecting the self-esteem, time management, and self- expression. Young adults now contend with the ability to connect with almost anyone from anywhere in the world at any time. The new-found area of influence leaves the individual open to predators, brainwashing, and increased possibility of criminal and in some cases treasonous activity.

Adjusted to Bronfenbrenner’s model the microsystem and mesosystem of Social media are now unbound and have an infinite capacity to influence the individual. Via Godbout, Daspe, Lussier, Sabourin, Dutton, and Hébert (2017) the increase in exposure to negative stimuli leaves the individual susceptible to psychological trauma depending upon the type of input experienced. Repeated exposure to violence, for example, can lead to deep conceptual issues. (Karcher, Kuperminc, Portwood, Sipe, and Taylor, 2006) indicate that an individual may not be in the particular location to experience the trauma firsthand the use of hand-held cameras and uncontrolled uploading in some online platforms allow an individual to view videos about war atrocity, physical assaults, and even suicide. Karcher, Kuperminc, Portwood, Sipe, and Taylor (2006) described adolescence as a time when young adults need mentoring and guidance more than ever to prevent exposure that may harm the individual psychologically for the rest of their lives. Parents and mentors knowledgeable as to the internet’s capabilities may limit the circle of influence and shrink both the microsystems and mesosystem of the individual to prevent negativity during such a difficult period.

The final theory addressing adolescent development is “Bandura Social Learning Theory” (Deaton, 2015). Bandura’s theory examines the areas of learning within the aspect of social interactions. Deaton (2015) suggests an individual learns special abilities form social interaction, observation, imitation, and modeling of a specific task. Adapting the theory to adolescent behavior requires an in-depth examination of several aspects of the life to determined possible outside influences are affecting both communication and the cognitive ability to carry out each step in Bandura’s model. Glatz and Buchanan (2015) express a need for an examination of the adolescent’s background and out the influence that may provide or decrease initiative in their daily life. Glatz and Buchanan (2015) describe the education level of the parents, family influence, and socioeconomics play a significant role in how a child navigate the emotional and physical hardships of puberty and the transition to adulthood. The adolescent period is a time of curiosity and examination of the world. The information adolescent’s gain not only within the family but also from peers may or may not reinforce positive values and ethical behaviors. The social aspect may seem discerning but presented as a learning experience may initiate an understanding of both positive and negative actions. The actions can then be examined and adapted to position the adolescent individual for success.

Though the aspects of multiple theories tend to cover most social elements the research fails to mention the adolescent individual’s ability to perform the in-depth processing of information and apply the knowledge gained by experience. DuBois and Silverthorn (2005) consider the guidance of mentors as a means to direct children and aid them in assessing information and applying the data correctly. The application of knowledge may escape the adolescent individual if they are unable to identify problems correctly. Broadening the mind of the individual and explaining connections will allow the individual to assess later and apply information more efficiently. The influence, of course, must also be positive as a negative influence may prevent the understanding of long-term ramifications. Once the individual learns to identify and evaluate problem more efficiently, long-term aspects will come to light. Though not commonly applied when presenting adolescent’s with logical assessment tools a philosophical approach may provide a positive means of decision making. Timmermann (2007) via Kant’s moral theory suggests that harm and the good of those involved can be the consideration of a self-designed “categorical imperative” (p.177). “Duty” to contribute positively can present a child with direction when other influences are less than favorable. The effect could be adjusted allowing the individual to turn toward a sense of proper actions which prevent harm resulting in positive behavior overall. Although, not the fault of the child external socioeconomic sources of influence may also require navigation to achieve a successful life.

Torikka, Kaltiala-Heino, Luukkaala, and Rimpelä (2017) describe socioeconomic status (SES) as a significant factor contributing to the emotional stability of the adolescent period. The education and employment of parents in this period suggest financial instability adversely affect the social position of the teenage individual. The parent’s education can not only affect the ability to provide but, also the ability to understand behaviors, psychological states, and even developmental stages of a child. The parent lacking proper education may result in violence to correct disciplinary issues instead of logical compromises to alleviate matters. The results can have a detrimental psychological effect on the child and compounding problems associated with economic status. Those suffering from SES instability often suffer from bouts of increased depression and hopelessness. The sense that the odds are insurmountable and somehow stacked against the inhibit curiosities and perpetuate psychological misconceptions. Those inhibited curiosities in-turn result in a lack of interest and poor academic performance that can lead to generational SES issues within a family (Torikka, Kaltiala-Heino, Luukkaala, and Rimpelä, 2017).

Adolescents viewing their parents as less than adequate providers can lead to a sense of anxiety and instability affecting communication. Communication between parents and teens may become more difficult as parents assume a lesser role of influence and children strive to gain independence (Glatz and Buchanan, 2015). The parent viewed by the teenager as unreliable lacking skills of employment that provide adequately may compound issues of discontentment. During this period parents may choose to enlist secondary sources of mentorship and retain the ability to keep a watchful eye on the young adult.

The time of adolescents can be a trying time for both parents and the child in question. Positive role models are essential during this period to prevent the child from going astray psychologically and even possibly criminally. The period of adolescence is a period of extreme change that can leave a child at a disadvantage unless they have adequate psychological support. Socioeconomics may also influence the cognitive ability of the child when economic and educational support appears lacking. The physical changes lead to behavioral changes that may leave a parent at a loss at times. The adolescent is a time of discovery and evolution in both their environment as well as peers and the opposite sex. The speed at which these changes can take place is often overwhelming. The importance is to understand the influences of impulsive short-sighted adolescent actions and properly to instruct the adolescent toward logical assessment, emotional maturity, and psychological stability. The lack of long-term vision can result in activities with long-term results including STD’s, drug abuse, abusive relationships, and criminal activity. The long-term repercussions of such actions may exacerbate an already stressful period leaving the individual with psychological scars and the inability to mature correctly with their peers.

Lastly, there have been several changes in society over the years, but none have played a more significant role than the influence of technology. The internet though capable of being the conduit for the distribution of knowledge has now become a considerable influence on the cognitive and social development of adolescents. The dilemma of internet access and lack of positive role models leave some youth navigating a minefield versus a simple transition to adulthood. Though the theories are similar, and all play a significant role in addressing specific aspects of adolescent development Bronfenbrenner’s philosophy seems to be relevant for our time. The use of the “Ecological Theory of Development” translates directly to interactions within the realm of social media. Social media plays a massive part in the lives of adolescents today. There is a need for broader research into the effects surrounding the endless social circle that can be created by simply opening a web page. Teens being both impressionable and at the mercy of hormones, and morphological changes cannot maintain both a healthy perspective and measure to prevent impulsive behaviors. The area of social media supplies the perfect playground for disaster and even permeant harm to a young life. The end of puberty should find stability for the child and above also else give them a sense of self-efficacy in their decision-making ability. Increased self-efficacy combined with positive role models influences the adolescent providing a foundation for today and building blocks for a better tomorrow.

References

American Psychological Association. (2010). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct: Including 2010 amendments. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

Deaton, S. (2015). Social Learning Theory in the Age of Social Media: Implications

Educational Practitioners. Journal of Educational Technology, 12(1), 1-6.

Doolittle, P. E. (1995). Understanding Cooperative Learning through Vygotsky's Zone of

Proximal Development.

DuBois, D. L., & Silverthorn, N. (2005). Natural Mentoring Relationships and Adolescent

Health: Evidence from a National Study. American Journal of Public Health, 95(3), 518-524. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2003.031476

Fink, G., Pfaff, D. W., & Levine, J. E. (2011). Handbook of neuroendocrinology. London:

Academic Press.

Glatz, T., & Buchanan, C. M. (2015). Change and Predictors of Change in Parental Self-efficacy

from Early to Middle Adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 51(10), 1367-1379. doi:10.1037/dev0000035

Godbout, N., Daspe, M., Lussier, Y., Sabourin, S., Dutton, D., & Hébert, M. (2017). Early

exposure to violence, relationship violence, and relationship satisfaction in adolescents and emerging adults: The role of romantic attachment. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 9(2), 127-137. doi:10.1037/tra0000136

Hessel, E. T., Loeb, E. L., Szwedo, D. E., & Allen, J. P. (2016). Predictions from Early

Adolescent Emotional Repair Abilities to Functioning in Future Relationships. Journal Of Research On Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell), 26(4), 776-789. doi:10.1111/jora.12229

Houchins, D. (2001). Developing the Self-Determination of Incarcerated Students. Journal of

Correctional Education, 52(4), 141-147. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/stable/2329218

Karcher, M. J., Kuperminc, G. P., Portwood, S. G., Sipe, C. L., & Taylor, A. S. (2006).

Mentoring programs: A framework to inform program development, research, and evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(6), 709-725. doi:10.1002/jcop.20125

Kuhn, D. (2006). Do Cognitive Changes Accompany Developments in the Adolescent Brain?

Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of The Association For Psychological Science, 1(1), 59-67. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2006.t01-2-.x

Lerner, R. M., Easterbrooks, M. A., Mistry, J., & Weiner, I. B. (2013). Developmental

Psychology [electronic resource]. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Neal, J. W., & Neal, Z. P. (2013). Nested or Networked? Future Directions for Ecological

Systems Theory. Social Development, 22(4), 722-737. doi:10.1111/sode.12018

Rhodes, J. E., Spencer, R., Keller, T. E., Liang, B., & Noam, G. (2006). A Model for the

Influence of Mentoring Relationships on Youth Development. Journal Of Community Psychology, 34(6), 691-707

Timmermann, J. (2007). Simplicity and Authority: Reflections of Theory and Practice in Kant's

Moral Philosophy. Journal of Moral Philosophy, 4(2), 167-182. doi:10.1177/1740468107079248

Torikka, A., Kaltiala-Heino, R., Luukkaala, T., & Rimpelä, A. (2017). Trends in Alcohol Use

among Adolescents from 2000 to 2011: The Role of Socioeconomic Status and Depression. Alcohol & Alcoholism, 52(1), 95-103. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agw048

.